ネットワーク効果 (ネットワーク外部性)

よくまとまっているため、

奈良産業大学　経営学部　Faculty of Business Administration
ネットワーク効果 (2002/10/23)

最近、ビジネス書で「ネットワーク効果」という言葉がよく使われています。文脈に応じて様々な意味で用いられていますが、「経済学におけるネットワーク外部性がもたらす効果」の意味として用いられている場合が多いようです。

ネットワーク外部性とは、「同じ財・サービスを消費する個人の数が多ければ多いほど、その財・サービスの消費から得られる効用が高まる効果」をさします。たとえば、FAX が世の中に 1台だけしかないとすると、その FAX は全く機能しません。利用者が少なければ、FAX を利用する価値は乏しいと考える人も多いでしょう。逆に、FAX の利用者が増えれば、通信できる相手が増えるので、それだけ FAX の価値が増すことになります。FAX そのものの性能とは無関係に、利用者の数に依存して価値が変化するのです。このように、ネットワーク外部性は通信ネットワークにおいて顕著にみられる性質です。

ところが、ネットワーク外部性は、必ずしも通信ネットワークとは無関係なところでも存在することが広く知られるようになりました。ビデオの方式をめぐるVHSとベータの戦いでは、最終的に VHS がビデオの標準方式になりました。しかし、VHS のほうがベータより優れた方式であったからではありません。パソコンでは、マイクロソフト社のウィンドウズが、OS の独り勝ち的シェアを維持し続けています。これらは、いずれもソフトウェアという要素の存在によって、多くの人に利用されている方式が選ばれた結果です。ビデオの場合は、ほんのわずかシェアが高かったため、まず VHS の方で映像ソフトが充実し、それがハードウェアの普及を促進したこと、さらに同様な理由でレンタルビデオが果たした役割も大きいと言われています。パソコンの場合も、シェアの高い OS でアプリケーションソフトの開発が進み、それによってさらにハードウェアの選択にフィードバックされるという循環が生まれました。ソフトウェアとハードウェアの間に相互依存的な関係が存在するため、ネットワーク外部性が発生したのです。

これらは、協定などで標準を決めたのではなく、ネットワーク外部性によって事実上の標準化 (デファクト・スタンダード) が成立した例です。デファクト・スタンダードを獲得した企業は、長期間にわたって独占的に利潤を得ることができるため、多くの企業がデファクト・スタンダードを意識した戦略をとるようになりました。

クリティカル・マス

ネットワーク外部性がはたらく財の普及では、「クリティカル・マス」と呼ばれる特別な普及率が存在するといわれています。このクリティカル・マスに達するまで普及させるには、大変な苦労をしなければなりません。しかし、クリティカル・マスをいったん超えると、急速に普及が拡大していきます。なぜ、このような普及率が存在するのでしょうか。ここでは、ネットワーク外部性がはたらく財に、普及のクリティカル・マスが存在する理由について簡単に説明します。

ネットワーク外部性がはたらくネットワークに加入する場合を考えます。真っ先に加入する人もいるでしょうし、普及が進んでからでないと加入しない人もいるでしょう。ネットワーク外部性の特徴は、各個人が行なう加入の意思決定が、普及の度合いから大きな影響を受けることです。そこで、「普及率がどの程度になったら加入しますか？」というアンケートをとったものとします。

図 1 のグラフは、その回答の一例で、アンケートの回答をヒストグラム（分布を示す棒グラフ）として示したものです。真っ先に加入する人、普及が進んでから加入する人など、様々な人がいますが、その平均は中央より左に寄っているものとします。それは、ネットワーク外部性が強くはたらくほど、普及率に鋭敏に反応して利便性が上昇し、少しでも普及したら加入が始まると考えられるからです。

図 1. 加入に関するアンケート回答の分布

さらに多くの人を対象にアンケートを取ると、図 2 のグラフに示す曲線 (3) のように、連続した曲線として示すことが可能になるはずです。このグラフは架空のデータですが、40 % の普及率の時に加入する人が最も多く、この40 % を中心にして左右対称になっています。(平均 40 %, 標準偏差 20 %の正規分布を例にしています)　曲線 (3) は、アンケートの回答の分布を示したものですが、回答した人の数を普及率の小さい順に累積したグラフを曲線 (1) として示しました。累積分布を示す曲線 (1) をみると、普及率が 50 % のところで、累積分布の値は 70 % を示しています。これによると、普及率が 50 % に達するまでに加入したいと考える人が、全体の 7割を占めることになります。

図 2. クリティカル・マスの説明

普及率が 50 % のとき、加入したいと考える人が全体の 70 % 存在するのですから、その差の 20 % の人は、加入したいのにまだ加入できずにいる個人の存在を示しています。いずれこの 20 % の人も加入するでしょう。したがって、普及率 50 % の状況は長く続かず、普及率は上昇していきます。どこまで上昇するかというと、累積分布と普及率が一致するところ、つまり曲線 (1) と曲線 (2) が交差するところです。この例では、ほぼ 100 % まで普及が進みます。逆に、普及率が 20 % のところでは、加入したいと考える人が全体の 16 % 程しか存在しません。その差の 4 % の人は、ネットワークから退出したいと考えていることになり、普及率は減少します。

このように、曲線 (1) が45度線 (2) を上回っているところでは、普及率が上昇していきます。逆に、曲線 (1) が45度線 (2) を下回ったところ (A から B の区間) では、普及率が減少します。普及は 0 % から進みますから、このようなネットワークが登場しますと、点 A の普及率までは楽に普及が進みます。しかし、点 A から点 B までは、積極的な普及促進策を講じないと普及が進みません。点 B を超えると普及は何もしなくても進んでいきます。ここで、点 B がクリティカル・マスと呼ばれる普及率です。

（水谷直樹）

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Posted on 2004-02-24 by yas |

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